The higher education policy implications of globalisation: a quality assurance agency perspective.
Donna Bell dan Peter Cullen
abstrak
Globalisasi, yang didefinisikan sebagai peningkatan arus lintas batas teknologi, keuangan, perdagangan, pengetahuan, manusia, nilai, dan gagasan (Knight & de Wit, 1997), adalah kata yang mencoba menangkap tren menuju peningkatan tingkat interaksi dan saling ketergantungan. . organisasi dan antar negara. Internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi mencerminkan tren ini. Globalisasi mengubah tuntutan pada sistem pendidikan tinggi, dan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi diperlukan untuk memenuhi tuntutan ini. Tinjauan ini berfokus pada hambatan tingkat kebijakan untuk pengakuan kualifikasi dan kepercayaan dalam sistem jaminan kualitas. Bagian 2 mengulas beberapa literatur tentang internasionalisasi penawaran dan permintaan. Bab 3 menjelaskan tanggapan internasional terhadap pengakuan dan jaminan kualitas. Bab 4 dan 5 masing-masing membahas perkembangan di Eropa dan Irlandia. Bab 6 mengkaji dampak keragaman dan otonomi (kelembagaan dan nasional). Kesimpulan utama adalah bahwa di tingkat politik, terutama di Uni Eropa, saat ini ada alat untuk mendukung internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi, tetapi kurangnya pengalaman dan pengetahuan praktis untuk menggunakan alat-alat ini secara konsisten. pada tahap awal implementasi di tingkat nasional dan kelembagaan.
1. Perkenalan
Globalisasi, yang didefinisikan sebagai peningkatan arus lintas batas teknologi, keuangan, perdagangan, pengetahuan, manusia, nilai, dan gagasan (Knight & de Wit, 1997), adalah kata yang mencoba menangkap tren menuju peningkatan tingkat interaksi dan saling ketergantungan. . organisasi dan antar negara. Internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi mencerminkan tren ini. Globalisasi mengubah tuntutan pada sistem pendidikan tinggi, dan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi diperlukan untuk memenuhi tuntutan ini.
Tuntutan yang berubah ini memiliki banyak bentuk: meningkatnya permintaan untuk kualifikasi Level 3, meningkatnya beban pengetahuan dan produktivitas penelitian di Level 3, meningkatnya minat mahasiswa/fakultas dalam kesempatan belajar/praktik di luar negeri, meningkatnya akuntabilitas.
Kami mendefinisikan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi sebagai tren menuju interaksi yang lebih besar dan saling ketergantungan antara sistem pendidikan tinggi. Internasionalisasi terjadi pada tingkat program (penawaran bersama dan gelar bersama, penawaran lintas batas, penelitian kolaboratif, waralaba, afiliasi, e-learning, dll.), pada tingkat individu (pertukaran staf dan siswa, aliran pengetahuan, dll.). .) ) dan mempengaruhi seluruh penawaran, karena program dapat dipengaruhi secara positif oleh daya tarik siswa pertukaran dan/atau pengajar berkunjung dan, di atas semua itu, akses yang lebih besar ke sumber daya pendidikan. Internasionalisasi dapat membantu (i) mengembangkan keterampilan individu dan menciptakan tim internasional, (ii) mempromosikan berbagi pengetahuan lintas batas, (iii) meningkatkan kapasitas inovasi, (iv) meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan, (v) meningkatkan efisiensi dan (vi) mempromosikan kohesi sosial..
Pada tahun 2003, Asosiasi Internasional Universitas menerbitkan sebuah studi berjudul Internasionalisasi Pendidikan Tinggi - Praktik dan Prioritas, yang memberikan perspektif kelembagaan. "Pesan utama" yang diidentifikasi dalam ulasan ini meliputi:
"Mobilitas mahasiswa dan fakultas adalah alasan terpenting untuk memprioritaskan internasionalisasi dan diidentifikasi sebagai bagian internasionalisasi yang tumbuh paling cepat."
"Pengosongan otak dan hilangnya identitas budaya adalah bahaya terbesar internasionalisasi."
“Pengembangan Mahasiswa, Staf dan Fakultas; standar akademik dan penjaminan mutu; dan kolaborasi internasional adalah tiga manfaat terpenting dari internasionalisasi penelitian.”
“Permasalahan yang perlu mendapat perhatian adalah kerjasama pengembangan, penjaminan mutu/akreditasi, pendanaan dan kerjasama penelitian.”
Internasionalisasi, tentu saja, membutuhkan mobilitas individu: menurut UNESCO
"... pertumbuhan pendidikan tinggi memiliki dimensi internasional karena ekspansi yang cepat dan internasionalisasi pengetahuan, serta koneksi dan solidaritas yang dibangun dalam komunitas ilmiah dan universitas, dan akses yang lebih besar ke sumber daya pendidikan di seluruh dunia. mobilitas siswa, peneliti, guru dan profesional, sangat penting untuk dimensi internasional ini” (UNESCO, 1993).
tetapi ada hambatan untuk mobilitas. Tinjauan ini berfokus pada hambatan tingkat kebijakan untuk pengakuan kualifikasi dan kepercayaan dalam sistem jaminan kualitas. Kegiatan penyelenggara pendidikan tinggi yang sebenarnya tidak akan dibahas secara rinci dalam makalah ini: penekanannya adalah pada kebijakan.
Pengakuan gelar menjadi sulit, sebagian karena bentuk dan budaya yang berbeda di mana sistem pendidikan tinggi telah berkembang tanpa interaksi selama bertahun-tahun. Untungnya, banyak negara dan kawasan menghadapi tantangan dan kita akan melihat kemajuan yang signifikan, terutama di kawasan Eropa.
Dalam Bagian 2, kami menjelaskan beberapa literatur tentang internasionalisasi penawaran dan permintaan. Di Bagian 3, kami menjelaskan tanggapan internasional terhadap pengakuan dan jaminan kualitas. Dalam Bab 4 dan 5 kita akan melihat perkembangan di Eropa dan Irlandia masing-masing. Dalam Bab 6, kami menganalisis dampak keragaman dan otonomi (kelembagaan dan nasional). Akhirnya, di Bagian 7 kami menarik beberapa kesimpulan umum.
2 Internasionalisasi penawaran dan permintaan
Menurut McGaw, penyebab internasionalisasi sisi penawaran adalah "hubungan internasional" (seperti program Fulbright dan Erasmus), dan "keuangan" sisi permintaan (nasional dan institusional) dan "kebutuhan individu" (primer). , "kebutuhan nasional" dan "utilitas yang lebih besar".
Hatakenaka (2004) mengidentifikasi lima tren utama yang terkait dengan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi: peningkatan mobilitas siswa; mobilitas pekerja yang lebih besar; transportasi lintas negara; meningkatnya permintaan akan barang-barang profesional; dan kerjasama ilmiah internasional.
Beberapa berpendapat bahwa argumen kuat yang mendukung internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi adalah pengembangan keterampilan yang memungkinkan lulusan untuk mengatasi kompleksitas lingkungan global (Meiras, 2004).
Pada bagian ini kita akan membahas beberapa topik.
mobilitas
Pelajar keliling dapat mendaftar di program gelar di negara tuan rumah atau menghabiskan masa studi di sana untuk mendapatkan kredit akademik menuju gelar di institusi di negara asal mereka atau (semakin) menuju gelar bersama internasional. .
Pada tahun 2003, terdapat 2,05 juta siswa internasional di negara-negara OECD, meningkat 14% dari tahun 2002 dan meningkat 36% dari tahun 2001, ketika ada 1,5 juta atau 5% dari total jumlah siswa (OECD, 2003).
Pada tahun 2003, lima tujuan teratas bagi pelajar internasional adalah Amerika Serikat, Inggris Raya, Jerman, Prancis, dan Australia (OECD).
Menurut proyeksi IDP, kebutuhan akan pendidikan tinggi internasional akan melebihi 7 juta siswa pada tahun 2025 (IDP, 2002).
Studi Vision 2020 memprediksi bahwa "permintaan global untuk penempatan siswa luar negeri dari negara-negara berbahasa Inggris akan meningkat dari 1 juta hari ini (2004) menjadi 2,6 juta pada tahun 2020".
Rekrutmen peneliti eksternal (sarjana, pascasarjana dan profesor) di sektor-sektor seperti sains dan teknologi semakin internasional karena sifat kompetitif skema pendanaan dan kebutuhan yang sesuai untuk akses ke pemikir terbaik. Para pekerja pengetahuan ini diakui memiliki kepentingan ekonomi yang besar, misalnya pertimbangkan salah satu tujuan Lisbon (Dewan Eropa, Maret 2000): “Ambil tindakan untuk menghilangkan hambatan mobilitas peneliti di Eropa pada tahun 2002 dan menarik dan menarik. Menjaga peneliti terbaik Eropa.
Program pertukaran, promosi aktif sektor pendidikan tinggi suatu negara di luar negeri, bersama dengan relaksasi undang-undang visa dan imigrasi, adalah salah satu strategi yang digunakan untuk menarik orang-orang berbakat ke ekonomi pengetahuan negara tuan rumah (OECD, 2004).
Contoh program pertukaran adalah Program Fulbright, yang merupakan program pendidikan internasional dari pemerintah AS. Itu didirikan oleh hukum pada tahun 1946 dan ditujukan untuk akademisi dan mahasiswa pascasarjana. Contoh lainnya adalah program Erasmus (European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students), yang merupakan aksi dari program SOCRATES II di bidang pendidikan tinggi.
Mobilitas dapat menyediakan lebih banyak variasi jalur ke pendidikan tinggi dan dengan demikian membantu mengatasi tantangan akses dan kesetaraan.
penyebab variabel
Meskipun bukti menunjukkan bahwa kebutuhan individu saat ini merupakan pendorong utama permintaan internasionalisasi, pertimbangan ekonomi menjadi semakin penting. Memasukkan konten internasional ke dalam kurikulum dan aspek lain dari kegiatan kampus dipandang sebagai cara untuk meningkatkan daya saing mahasiswa, institusi, dan negara di pasar global (Qiang, 2003). Pergeseran logika tersebut didukung oleh pergeseran paradigma dari kerjasama ke kompetisi yang dibawa oleh pertumbuhan pasar pendidikan internasional (Campbell dan van der Wende, 2000).
Potensi institusi pendidikan tinggi untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dari kegiatan internasional sangat memotivasi (Meiras 2004). Merekrut mahasiswa internasional telah menjadi pendorong penting pendapatan institusional dan kepentingan ekonomi nasional (Qiang 2003). Laporan Fottrell (2006) tentang pendidikan kedokteran universitas Irlandia memberikan contoh bagaimana pendapatan mahasiswa internasional menopang kelangsungan hidup sekolah kedokteran Irlandia.
Logika pendapatan menjadi penting dalam pendekatan strategis beberapa negara OECD, terutama Australia, Selandia Baru dan Inggris. Australia dan Selandia Baru mengikuti strategi pemerintah yang komprehensif untuk mempromosikan pendidikan sebagai industri ekspor.
Secara umum, dukungan pemerintah untuk strategi yang menghasilkan pendapatan asing memberikan otonomi yang cukup besar bagi institusi untuk mencari dan mempertahankan reputasi di sektor pendidikan tinggi, misalnya melalui perjanjian penjaminan mutu internasional (OECD, 2004).
Liberalisasi pasar pendidikan
Internasionalisasi layanan pendidikan didukung oleh liberalisasi pasar pendidikan melalui inisiatif seperti perjanjian perdagangan regional. Faktor lain yang mendorong pertumbuhan penawaran adalah meningkatnya persaingan internasional dalam pendidikan tinggi dan meningkatnya insentif ekonomi untuk internasionalisasi (Van der Wende dan Westerheijden, 2001).
Di banyak negara, pemerintah telah menerapkan kebijakan deregulasi untuk mempromosikan otonomi kelembagaan dan kekuatan pasar yang lebih besar. Dampak deregulasi, terutama jika dibarengi dengan pemotongan dana publik, telah mendorong institusi pendidikan tinggi untuk melakukan ekspansi lintas batas (Campbell dan van der Wende, 2000).
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) yang mencakup pendidikan sangat penting. GATS, perjanjian Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia (WTO) yang mulai berlaku pada tahun 1995, bertujuan untuk meliberalisasi perdagangan jasa melalui putaran negosiasi yang berurutan. Mengenai pendidikan, GAT mengakui empat bentuk yang berbeda: 1) pembelajaran lintas batas, seperti pembelajaran jarak jauh, e-learning, universitas virtual; 2) Konsumsi di luar negeri, misalnya pelajar yang bepergian ke luar negeri untuk tujuan pendidikan; 3) Kehadiran komersial misalnya cabang atau back office, kemitraan, perjanjian waralaba dengan organisasi lokal dan 4) Kehadiran orang perseorangan, misalnya guru, dosen, peneliti yang bekerja di luar negeri (contoh dari Knight 2002).
Prinsip-prinsip utama yang mendasari GATS tercantum:
Semua layanan ditanggung oleh GATS
Negara yang paling disukai berlaku untuk semua layanan, kecuali untuk pengecualian sementara (lebih suka satu, lebih suka semua).
Perlakuan nasional berlaku di bidang-bidang di mana komitmen dibuat (komitmen masing-masing negara untuk membuka pasar di sektor tertentu dan tingkat keterbukaan pasar ini adalah hasil negosiasi).
Transparansi dalam aturan, poin pertanyaan
Aturan harus objektif dan masuk akal (dan tidak memihak).
Pembayaran internasional: biasanya tidak terbatas
Kewajiban masing-masing negara: kontrak dan terkait
Liberalisasi Progresif: Melalui Negosiasi Lebih Lanjut
Dampak GATS pada pendidikan tinggi bisa sangat signifikan dan kontroversial, meskipun perdebatan telah mereda baru-baru ini. Pengecualian terhadap ketentuan-ketentuannya timbul sehubungan dengan jasa-jasa yang diberikan dalam pelaksanaan kekuasaan negara. Tidak sepenuhnya jelas apakah pendidikan tinggi yang didanai publik termasuk dalam kategori ini dan pendidikan tinggi swasta tidak. GATS akan mempengaruhi regulasi (penjaminan mutu, akreditasi dan standar) dan subsidi. Dampak GATS pada pendidikan tinggi dapat meningkat secara signifikan sambil menunggu liberalisasi bertahap melalui negosiasi. Lihat (Knight 2002 dan 2003) untuk informasi lebih lanjut tentang GATS dan pendidikan tinggi.
Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK)
Tak perlu dikatakan bahwa teknologi informasi dan komunikasi memiliki dan akan memiliki dampak besar pada pendidikan tinggi pada umumnya dan, khususnya, pada internasionalisasi, memperluas akses ke sumber daya pendidikan. TIK telah sangat meningkatkan ketersediaan pengetahuan, mengaburkan batas-batas nasional dan, dalam beberapa aspek, peran pemerintah nasional (Qiang, 2003). Di beberapa bidang teknis dan profesional, e-learning telah menjadi metode penyampaian penting yang tersedia di seluruh dunia.
Revolusi TIK masih jauh dari selesai. Sejauh ini, pencapaian utama adalah peluncuran akses ke teknologi: penggunaan kreatif teknologi ini dalam pendidikan baru saja dimulai, dan masih ada banyak ruang untuk pertumbuhan.
Contoh menarik untuk memperluas akses ke sumber daya adalah proyek MIT Open Courseware. “OpenCourseWare mencerminkan tujuan langsung dan utama MIT untuk memajukan pendidikan di seluruh dunia. Melalui MIT OCW, fakultas dan mahasiswa dari seluruh dunia dapat mengambil manfaat dari karya penelitian fakultas kami dan bergabung dengan komunitas pendidikan global di mana pengetahuan dan ide dibagikan secara terbuka dan bebas untuk kepentingan semua orang.” (Susan Hockfield, presiden Institut Teknologi Massachusetts (ocw. mit.edu)).
Omong-omong, meningkatkan akses ke sumber daya pendidikan melalui TIK dapat memungkinkan guru untuk memikirkan kembali pendekatan tradisional untuk mengajar dan mungkin memungkinkan realokasi upaya, memungkinkan lebih banyak waktu untuk kerja kelompok kecil dan penilaian formatif.
situasi transnasional
Pendidikan transnasional mengacu pada "setiap program studi pendidikan tinggi atau serangkaian program studi atau layanan pendidikan (termasuk pembelajaran jarak jauh) di mana siswa berada di negara selain negara di mana lembaga pemberi berada" (UNESCO/Dewan Eropa) . , 1999).
Tentu saja ada pasar di antara orang-orang untuk pendidikan yang dapat diakses, terjangkau, dan berkualitas. Selanjutnya, dalam kasus di mana pasokan domestik tidak dapat memenuhi permintaan, pemerintah dapat beralih ke lembaga asing untuk mengisi kesenjangan (Garrett dan Verbik, 2003).
Penawaran transnasional juga menyediakan akses untuk melanjutkan program pengembangan profesional. Beberapa universitas AS, misalnya, menawarkan kursus online yang dirancang untuk mempromosikan pengembangan profesional para insinyur dan profesional lainnya.
Ada semakin banyak bukti bahwa penawaran transnasional terkonsentrasi pada mata pelajaran kejuruan, khususnya bisnis, dan pada tingkat yang lebih rendah teknologi informasi. Misalnya, di Hong Kong, dari 385 program asing, 65% berfokus pada bisnis, 11% lainnya pada TI. Data ini mungkin mencerminkan kecenderungan yang lebih besar bagi universitas asing untuk fokus pada mata pelajaran kejuruan sebagai "kelompok aman" kecuali jika dikelola oleh universitas lokal. Kecenderungan mata pelajaran vokasional dalam ketentuan transnasional kontras dengan pilihan disiplin akademik oleh siswa internasional yang pergi ke luar negeri, yang lebih seimbang antar disiplin ilmu (OECD, 2003). Amerika Serikat, Inggris Raya dan Australia adalah peserta paling aktif dalam pengiriman transnasional.
3 Pengakuan, jaminan kualitas
Hambatan mobilitas dan kurangnya sistem mutu yang transparan menghalangi internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi dan pelatihan kejuruan. Istilah penjaminan mutu harus dipahami sebagai mencakup semua bentuk penjaminan mutu eksternal (akuntabilitas publik) oleh badan pemerintah terkait, termasuk akreditasi program.
Konfirmasi pelatihan
Kegagalan untuk menyediakan proses yang proporsional, adil dan konsisten untuk pengakuan kualifikasi dan penilaian pencapaian pendidikan (istilah 'pengakuan' mencakup keduanya) dapat menghalangi upaya untuk mendaftar sebagai siswa atau bekerja di negara lain.
Ada kelas pengakuan yang berbeda: (i) pengakuan kualifikasi formal seperti gelar atau diploma, (ii) pengakuan kualifikasi tingkat kedua untuk masuk, (iii) penilaian hasil pembelajaran selama masa studi di luar negeri untuk kredit akademik, ( iv) penilaian informal.
ервые актики ания авиации ерез ебные ограммы .д. d. акі адыход ожа е аспазнаваць алентныя аграмы, але ожа е аваць алентныя авучання. ольш авядлівым адыходам 'яўляецца анцэнтрацыя а а ах авучання (веды, авыкі або ампетэнцыі). овым адыходам ожа аяўнасць агульнай аліфікацый адастаўлення атэгорый аналізу асягнутых аў. амя аго, ацэсы ання огуць енш орсткімі апамогай азрыстых аеспячэння асці, аколькі аскрываюць асягнутыя андарты аваюць а
адыгрывае альную олю арэнні ававой азы ання аліфікацый а еце. альныя анвенцыі, а а ання адукацыі (i) опы, (ii) , (iii) арабскіх аў, (iv) акіянскага , (v) ацінскай аса арыбск ).
«У 1992 одзе о ана еснае ае а аднаго адавага амітэтаў агчымасці ерсальнай анвенцыі аб а аў а ак асягнуць ансенсусу е алося, а облена ова, о еянні авінны ацягвацца а альным оўні» (ЮНЕСКА, 2004). асля ага UNECSO апублікавала 1993 . аендацыі а анні адукацыйных аў аліфікацый аліне ай адукацыі», адрасаваныя авам-членам азглядзе ер, еааа амендацыі атрабуюць асці ачэнні ацэдур:
«Пры ўстанаўленні працэдур ацэнкі кваліфікацый для ўсіх мэтаў, згаданых у пунктах 8-10 вышэй, кампетэнтныя органы і адпаведныя ўстановы павінны ўлічваць вялікую разнастайнасць навучальных устаноў, відаў навучання, зместу праграм і метадаў навучання, уключаючы дыстанцыйнае навучанне і іншыя традыцыйныя формы вышэйшай адукацыі. ацэнцы астаўнасці амежнай аліфікацыі ада авінна аксама аць авы, еў е адальнік аіне, е а а аа» (ЮНЕСКА, 1993).
абонская анвенцыя а анні 1997 . (Канвенцыя авета опы/ЮНЕСКА) аспаўсюджваецца а еўрапейскі , аднаўляе анвенцыю 1979 . а ершая анвенцыя, ая а абноўлена асля амендацый 1993 одзе. е адпісалі ольшасьць аінаў-чальцоў ады опы, а аксама , анада, алія . абонская анвенцыя аб анні асяроджваецца а ах авучання (ведах авыках) атрабуе ання, алі "істотная" озніца е а
апрызнана, о агадненні аб анні авінны ерагледжаны абноўлены ам овых атрабаванняў, акіх анне есных еародных. азгледзім аступныя амендаваныя еянні, аныя абалізацыяй ай адукацыяй: анферэнцыі «Дыялог евер-Юг» 2003 .
«Умацаванне, ерагляд абнаўленне альных анвенцый аб анні аліфікацый адавальнення овых атрэб адстаўленне ародных андартаў аксама е азгледжана агчымасць арэння ерагледжанай ароднай ання аліфікацый.
антэксце арта адзначыць, о абонская анвенцыя аб анні агла адаптавацца а ен, «дадатковыя ».
ое апейская амісія арыла етку ацыянальных аў акадэмічнага ання (NARIC) аляпшэння акадэмічнага ання аліфікацый ерыядаў авучання аве опы арылі етку ENIC (Еўрапейская етка ацыянальных армацыйных аў акадэмічнага ання абільнасці) еткі ENIC NARIC есна ацоўнічаюць.
Краіны Ціхаакіянскага рэгіёну, а таксама Аўстралія, Новая Зеландыя і іншыя азіяцкія краіны спадзяюцца аб'яднацца, каб сфармаваць сетку распазнавання, аналагічную ENIC/NARIC, для пашырэння абмену інфармацыяй і пашыранага вопыту распазнавання. ага о е а еракладаў: а азываецца UMAP.
афесійнае анне апісвае ава аймацца афесійнай ейнасцю. афесійнае анне - ольш аданае анне, аколькі о акранае е олькі ацыянальную адукацыі, але арганізацыю афесіі ае . а анне афесійных аліфікацый аста аюць ольш окія аблемы, андлёвая алітыка альянсы, ацыйная алітыка, ая аляцыя адноа а апошнія ады анні аемнасці афесійнай алентнасці ашаюцца аз агадненні аб аемным анні. агадненні огуць адрознівацца а аб'ёме , авіла, аключаюцца аміж афесійнымі асацыяцыямі, аінамі або альнымі амі (Campbell dan van der Wende, 2000). ашынгтонская амова - обры ад:
«Прызнавая отную алентнасць акрэдытацыі арганізацый, аюць атус адпісантаў, аграм адрыхтоўкі ераў, акрэдытаваных .
анавіць, о аграм, акрэдытаваных арганізацыямі а акрэдытацыі ожнай аіны-члена, атовыя аймацца ернай ацай а ачатковым оўні.
апейскім аюзе е екалькі а аесійных аліфікацый, ажную олю аляпшэнні афесійнага ання абільнасці (раздзел 4).
абеспячэння асці
абеспячэнне ачацца аказ альнага есца ерухомасці а азве ага адукацыі аграме аворый, еабходных для ароаднага а альная а алонскага ацэсу. В Соединенных Штатах в проекте отчета министра образования о будущем высшего образования (2006 г.) (версия от 9 августа 2006 г.) делается вывод о том, что подотчетность является ключом к повышению эффективности сектора высшего образования и успеваемости студентов, что тесно связано с институциональным ехом. олжны еряться а основе «добавленной оимости».
авной очкой обеспечения ачества ется оставщик его образования. оставщики олжны еть енние емы обеспечения ачества одвергаться ешней оверке ачества езависимыми агентствами, оторые акже Это рекомендуемый подход в Стандартах и руководствах по обеспечению качества в Европейском пространстве высшего образования, который будет обсуждаться в Разделе 4, а также в Руководстве по передовой практике INQAAHE. олезный обзор «Мировых облем обеспечения ачества» едставлен (Kristoffersen dan Woodhouse 2005).
В оставшейся части этого раздела основное внимание будет уделено обеспечению качества трансграничных программ, что создает определенные проблемы для поставщиков, агентств по обеспечению качества и сетей агентств по обеспечению качества.
di sini
ое оверки ачества ернационализации (IQRP) апущен 1994 оду ограммой о ональному енеджменту ем образовании (IM) После экспериментов с проектом в нескольких учреждениях по всему миру он получил дальнейшее развитие и институционализацию в сотрудничестве с Европейской ассоциацией университетов, и теперь он предоставляется тремя организациями под названием IQR (Обзор качества интернационализации). Основной целью IQR является повышение качества посредством оценки достижения целей и задач интернационализации, заявленных учреждением (van der Wende and Westerheijden, 2001).
Глобальный альянс за транснациональное образование (GATE) разработал набор принципов для оказания помощи учреждениям и организациям в разработке и оценке качества трансграничного образования. GATE предлагает сертификацию транснациональных программ посредством процесса самооценки и экспертной оценки.
Кроме того, в области транснационального образования ЮНЕСКО и Совет Европы координировали разработку Кодекса практики предоставления транснационального образования (ЮНЕСКО/Совет Европы, 2001 г.). Основанные на Лиссабонской конвенции о признании (Совет Европы, 1997 г.) принципы, изложенные в Кодексе, предназначены для удовлетворения ожиданий как стран отправления, так и стран назначения.
Управление по обеспечению качества Великобритании (QAA) разработало кодекс поведения для академического обеспечения качества и стандартов в высшем образовании, а раздел 2 кодекса касается совместной доставки и гибкого и распределенного обучения (включая электронное обучение). Соблюдение Кодекса является обязательным и основано на предположении, что академические стандарты призов, присуждаемых по соглашению о сотрудничестве, должны быть эквивалентны стандартам сопоставимых призов, доставляемых отправляющей страной.
Всемирный форум ЮНЕСКО по международному обеспечению качества, аккредитации и признанию квалификаций был учрежден в 2002 г. Первый форум был посвящен теме «Глобализация и высшее образование» и плану действий ЮНЕСКО. Включает:
'Aggiornare le convenzioni regionali in modo che rispondano meglio alle nuove sfide di un ambiente in evoluzione dell'istruzione superiore,
Sviluppo delle capacità per la garanzia della qualità a livello nazionale e regionale per garantire lo sviluppo sostenibile dei sistemi di istruzione superiore e
Sviluppare strumenti informativi per gli studenti sull'offerta di istruzione superiore di qualità per consentire loro di prendere decisioni informate
Lo sviluppo di linee guida internazionali e codici di buona pratica è stato proposto per supportare un quadro internazionale per lo sviluppo delle politiche nazionali'
Uno sforzo congiunto molto significativo da parte dell'OCSE e dell'UNESCO, nello sviluppo della pubblicazione Linee guida per l'offerta di qualità nell'istruzione transfrontaliera (OCSE, 2005). Queste linee guida forniscono un quadro internazionale per proteggere gli studenti e le altre parti interessate da un'offerta di bassa qualità e da fornitori poco affidabili. Questa iniziativa è stata stimolata dalla diversità dei quadri nazionali per l'accreditamento della garanzia della qualità e il riconoscimento delle qualifiche. Mentre alcuni paesi dispongono di sistemi globali, altri paesi non hanno ancora la capacità di affrontare le sfide dell'offerta transfrontaliera. Anche la mancanza di quadri globali per il coordinamento di varie iniziative a livello internazionale, in alcuni casi in cui l'offerta transfrontaliera non è coperta da alcun quadro di garanzia della qualità e di accreditamento. Le Linee guida stabiliscono come i governi, gli istituti di istruzione superiore, i corpi studenteschi, gli organismi di garanzia della qualità e di accreditamento, gli organismi di riconoscimento accademico e professionale dei paesi di invio e di accoglienza potrebbero condividere le responsabilità, nel rispetto della diversità dei sistemi di istruzione superiore. Gli obiettivi politici principali sono quattro:
''Tutela degli studenti/discenti' dai rischi di disinformazione, offerta di scarsa qualità e qualifiche di validità limitata.
Le qualifiche dovrebbero essere leggibili e trasparenti al fine di aumentarne la validità internazionale e la portabilità. Fonti di informazioni affidabili e di facile utilizzo dovrebbero facilitare questo.
Le procedure di riconoscimento dovrebbero essere trasparenti, coerenti, eque e affidabili e imporre il minor onere possibile ai professionisti mobili.
Le agenzie nazionali di assicurazione della qualità e di accreditamento devono intensificare la loro cooperazione internazionale al fine di aumentare la comprensione reciproca.'
Lo sviluppo delle linee guida e dei codici di condotta discussi in precedenza è stato un positivo passo avanti nel fornire un approccio coerente per affrontare le questioni di garanzia della qualità associate all'offerta di istruzione transfrontaliera.
Tuttavia, queste iniziative sono progettate per fornire un quadro o una serie di principi che dovrebbero essere alla base dei sistemi di garanzia della qualità delle istituzioni erogatrici. La prova finale del successo è la prova di sistemi efficaci di assicurazione della qualità basati su linee guida e codici di condotta. Il parametro più significativo di successo è la capacità dei sistemi di assicurazione della qualità di misurare e riferire sull'accuratezza dei risultati di apprendimento dichiarati e sul livello di conseguimento. Sono necessarie ulteriori ricerche in questo settore.
An interesting approach to the external QA of international collaboration is that of the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA) . Even before the launch of the UNESCO/OECD Guidelines, the AUQA had adopted a risk assessment approach to determine the nature of a university's overseas operations, with the option of an audit panel visit to an overseas site where appropriate. The agency is currently developing bilateral relations with quality agencies in countries where Australia has a significant higher education presence. Memoranda of Co-operation have also been signed with other agencies (Woodhouse, 2006).
On the receiving side, initiatives have been developed to assure consumer protection in the wake of concerns about the quality and standards of transnational education. Several countries have enacted legislation which requires foreign providers to be registered, licensed or in some other way approved by the local quality assurance authorities or by the Ministry of Education (eg Hong Kong, Israel, Malaysia, Romania, South Africa).
Distance education is a mode of provision that arises in the international context as well as in the national context. Distance education is an area in which traditional providers are increasingly active and which has seen the emergence of new providers that are quite different in form to the traditional providers. The quality assurance of distance programmes presents different problems to that of traditional programmes. We won't dwell on them here because they are not exclusively international issues. The issues are covered well in, for example, the 'Best Practices For Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate Programs' published jointly by the eight (including the six higher education) regional accrediting commissions in the USA or in the aforementioned QAA guidelines.
4 The European Context
Internationalisation activity at the regional in Europe has been particularly intense for the past decade. The main drivers are the European Commission and the Bologna Process. The Bologna Process is a process of intergovernmental cooperation involving 45 Countries (2006) which aims to create a European Higher Education Area (EHEA) by 2010. The European Union with 25 Member States (2006) contributes to the development of quality education by encouraging cooperation between Member States. UNESCO and the Council of Europe (46 countries) as we have seen are also significant actors particularly in the area of recognition.
The Bologna Process
The EHEA is to be achieved by creating a common structure (consistent and compatible systems and processes) for higher education and training which is sufficiently flexible to allow national requirements to be met. There is a corresponding process for further education called the Copenhagen process.
The Bologna Process divides higher education into three main cycles. The corresponding major qualifications in the Irish system are Bachelor, Master and Doctor. A misconception that sometimes arises is that the Bologna Process prescribes a 3+2 year model for the first two cycles. Two significant recent developments in the Bologna Process are the adoption in 2005 of 'Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area' (Bologna Standards and Guidelines) and 'The framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area (Bologna Framework)'.
The Bologna Standards and Guidelines are contained in a report to Bologna Ministers entitled 'Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area' developed and drafted by ENQA through its members and in cooperation with EURASHE, ESIB and EUA.
(ENQA is the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education; EURASHE is group of national and professional associations of colleges and polytechnics and individual Institutions; ESIB is the students group and EUA is the European University Association. These four bodies meet regularly as the E4-Group. ENQA coordinates E4-Group meetings which include representation from the European directorate-general of Education and Training.)
The main recommendations in the ENQA report on Standards and Guidelines include:
There will be European standards for internal and external quality assurance, and for external quality assurance agencies.
European quality assurance agencies will be expected to submit themselves to a cyclical review within five years.
There will be an emphasis on subsidiarity, with reviews being undertaken nationally where possible.
The report also proposed that a European register of quality assurance agencies be produced. Ministers at Bergen adopted the stan-dards and guidelines and welcomed the principle of a European register of QA Agencies and asked ENQA in co-operation with the other members of the E4 Group to report back through the Follow-up Group on the practicalities of establishing a European Register.
The first agency in Europe to demonstrate formal compliance with the aforementioned Standards and Guidelines did so in July 2006. It is reasonable to anticipate that all EHEA external QA agencies and higher education providers will adapt their QA processes to these Bologna Standards and Guidelines.
The Bologna Framework is based on the Dublin Descriptors developed by the Joint Quality Initiative drawing on experi-ence of established frameworks elsewhere particularly in the UK. There is already considerable support for the Bologna Framework owing to the pre-existence and widespread application of the Dublin Descriptors.
The Bologna Process has the full support of the European Commission (which nevertheless has more wide ranging objectives)—its contribution to the Bologna Bergen Meeting included the following point under the heading 'Next Steps: Universities and the Lisbon Strategy':
'Bologna reforms are necessary and they will have the full support of the Commission in the years to come, but in striving for ever-increased quality, institutions and governments must look beyond these structures, and address the underlying questions of attractiveness, governance and funding. They should consider what needs to be done in order to achieve world-class quality, to improve governance of institutions and systems, and to increase and diversify higher education funding.' (EC 2005)
A comprehensive mid-term review of the Bologna process was published by EURYDICE in 2005. It found that the three-cycle structure was being introduced in most signatory countries, the implementation of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and Diploma Supplement had begun in a majority and the development of quality assurance measures was also well under way and concluded that it 'remains vital to extend these measures to all higher education institutions and programmes on a regular systematic basis and to reinforce them with additional measures such as effective quality assurance systems recognised outside national borders.'
The EUA Trends survey of higher education institutions (HEIs) is published biennially. Trends IV survey involved site visits to 62 HEIs and focused on structures, recognition and quality. Overall Trends IV found that the surveyed HEIs have adopted the Bologna Process reforms and in the majority of case have taken ownership of the process. Curiously, accord-ing to Trends IV the majority of Higher Education Institutions report that 'national legislation undermines decision making autonomy'. What the trends report demonstrates very clearly is that despite the high-level consensus that exists in the Bologna Process and while there has been very significant progress made that there yet remains is considerable variation in the implementation, and even the understanding of the Bologna related instruments and that much work remains to be done. Some of the findings which have an overtly international dimension are highlighted (paraphrased/quoted) in the following paragraphs:-
'Considerable progress has been made in introducing three cycle structures across Europe, although there are still some legislative obstacles to structural reform in a few countries five years after signing the Bologna Declaration. Many institutions, however, have now reached the heart of the transition process. Structural change must be matched with proper redevelopment of the curricula, and often this has not been completed. Confusion sometimes exists regarding the objectives of the first cycle degree (which many mistakenly regard as a compressed ver-sion of former long-cycle programmes) and in many cases there has not been adequate time for institutions and academics to address reforms in a comprehensive way and to benefit from the opportunities offered through restructuring the curricula.'
'Recognition of qualifications: Improved quality is regarded as one of the keys to more automatic recognition of qualifications across Europe. The site visits show that considerable progress in recognition is being made, but again there is a need to do more to ensure a systematic use of the commonly agreed Bologna transparency tools, in particular ECTS and the Diploma Supplement. The Diploma Supplement is cer-tainly being introduced in all the countries visited, in line with the commitment of the Berlin Communiqué, but in addition to technical problems, the challenge of providing clear information about learning outcomes remains. Meanwhile ECTS is being widely used for “student transfer”, and generally seems to work well. However, it is still often perceived as a tool to translate national systems into a European language, rather than as a central feature of curriculum design. Thus strengthening efforts to mainstream these European tools in institu-tions across Europe continues to be a priority.' Some HEIs 'have difficulties with the validation of courses taken abroad'. Many identified the need to improve the implementation of ECTS to preclude inconsistencies.
'One of the biggest practical problems with Joint Degree programmes is the question of quality assurance/accreditation. Transnational higher education programmes need special forms of quality assurance and it is to be hoped that the progress made at European level for quality in agreeing on shared guidelines and standards will also facilitate appropriate accreditation mechanisms for Joint Degree pro-grammes.' Trends IV provides some evidence that the 'situation regarding the legal possibility to award joint degrees' is improving but also states: 'amendments to the higher education laws are still needed in some countries where Joint Degrees are either excluded or at least not explicitly mentioned and encouraged in the national legislation.'
Variation in academic calendars across Europe is a 'major obstacle' to mobility. Agreement on the date for the end of the first semester and start of second semester would resolve this issue.
'The recognition of non-formal/non-academic qualifications (APL/APEL) needs to be put on the agenda of more HEIs as it will be an increasingly important topic in future national and European discussions on higher education and vocational training.'
The current focus of the Bologna Process is on
implementation of the standards and guidelines for quality assurance;
implementation of the national frameworks for qualifications;
the awarding and recognition of joint degrees, including at the doctorate level;
creating opportunities for flexible learning paths in higher education, including
procedures for the recognition of prior learning.
There follow some observations on the Bologna process:
1. Significant progress has been made, there is widespread support for the process and we now have some of the main tools for exchanging information about the quality and standards of higher education programmes. What is still lacking at this early stage is practical expertise and know-how in using those tools consistently so that the decisions made are repeatable. This will come in time provided various communities of practice candidly share experiences and stakeholders remain open to change.
2. This lack of practical experience also applies at the programme level where the switch to learning outcomes and a student centred approach will take some years to embed. The new learner centred approach will not happen by fiat but by individuals and institutions changing their approach to teaching and more important to assessment. This new approach also requires that external quality agencies adapt their methods to encourage focus on outcomes and the 'value added' to learners.
3. HEIs and External Quality Assurance Agencies will generally be able to comply with the Standards and Guide-lines for quality for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area. How much transparency this will actually create and whether it will be sufficient to engender the trust required to encourage acceptance of quality and accreditation decisions at face value remains to be seen. One suspects that supplementary instruments such as mutual accreditation/QA agreements might be required.
4. It is by no means clear that the classification by the non-specialist of qualifications using the Bologna Frame-work will lead to repeatable decisions. The problem is that the learning outcome statements are open to a broad interpretation unless one is aware of the context in which they were developed. The best way to address this is to contextualise the framework by publishing examples of Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 programme outcomes in the main disciplines. The work of the Tuning Educational Structures in Europe group which is expressing outcomes for individual disciplines will be very valuable in this respect.
Recognition, The Council of Europe and the Lisbon Recognition Convention
The Council of Europe groups together 46 countries of greater Europe. The contribution of the Council of Europe to the Bologna process is significant particularly in the area of recognition of qualifications. In this section we focus upon the Lis-bon Recognition Convention. Other contributions of the Council of Europe are outlined in the Council Recommendation 1620 (2003) 'Council of Europe contribution to the higher education area'.
The Lisbon Recognition Convention can be regarded as a pillar of the Bologna Process. The full title of the convention is 'Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region'. The term 'qualifications concerning higher education' includes higher education qualifications and qualifications giving access to higher education. The convention con-cerns assessment of qualifications for recognition or other purposes.
The principal provisions are (quoting from the Council of Europe Website) :
'Holders of qualifications issued in one country shall have adequate access to an assessment of these qualifications in another country.
No discrimination shall be made in this respect on any ground such as the applicant's gender, race, colour, disability, language, religion, po-litical opinion, national, ethnic or social origin.
The responsibility to demonstrate that an application does not fulfil the relevant requirements lies with the body undertaking the assessment.
Each country shall recognise qualifications – whether for access to higher education, for periods of study or for higher education degrees – as similar to the corresponding qualifications in its own system unless it can show that there are substantial differences between its own qualifi-cations and the qualifications for which recognition is sought.
Recognition of a higher education qualification issued in another country shall have one or more of the following consequences:
- access to further higher education studies, including relevant examinations and preparations for the doctorate, on the same condi-tions as candidates from the country in which recognition is sought;
- The use of an academic title, subject to the laws and regulations of the country in which recognition is sought
- In addition, recognition may facilitate access to the labour market.'
Article X.2.5 of the Convention allows the Council of Europe/UNESCO Recognition Convention Committee to adopt subsidiary texts to the Convention and so far four texts have been adopted:
Recommendation on the Recognition of Joint Degrees and its Explanatory Memorandum (2004)
Code of Good Practice in the Provision of Trans-national Education (2001)
Recommendation on Criteria and Procedures for the Assessment on Foreign Qualifications (2001)
Recommendation on International Access Qualifications (1999).
The Recommendation on the Recognition of Joint Degrees is a response to the growing importance of these qualifications which in the strict legal sense are not considered covered by the Council of Europe/UNESCO Recognition Convention. It provides an inclusive definition of 'joint degrees' describing the kind of programmes and qualifications that are covered and very detailed and practical guidelines for the recognition of joint degrees. It recommends issue of the Diploma Sup-plement and ECTS.
The Code of Good Practice in the Provision of Trans-national Education according to its explanatory memorandum is designed: 'to (i) to meet the expectations of both the sending and the receiving countries with regard to transnational arrangements in higher education; (ii) to provide a source of reference on issues relating to the quality assurance and evaluation of programmes provided and qualifications issued through transnational arrangements; (iii) to offer “consumer protection” for students, employers and others who may be concerned with qualifications awarded through transnational arrangements; and (iv) to facilitate the recognition of qualifications awarded through transnational arrangements in higher education.'
Clause 2 of the Recommendation on Criteria and Procedures for the Assessment on Foreign Qualifications describes its purpose: 'It codifies established best practice among credential evaluators and builds on this practice in suggesting further improvements. The provisions of the Recommen-dation are in particular directed at recognition cases where a complex assessment is required. It is realised that cases involving
abstrak
Globalisasi, yang didefinisikan sebagai peningkatan arus lintas batas teknologi, keuangan, perdagangan, pengetahuan, manusia, nilai, dan gagasan (Knight & de Wit, 1997), adalah kata yang mencoba menangkap tren menuju peningkatan tingkat interaksi dan saling ketergantungan. . organisasi dan antar negara. Internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi mencerminkan tren ini. Globalisasi mengubah tuntutan pada sistem pendidikan tinggi, dan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi diperlukan untuk memenuhi tuntutan ini. Tinjauan ini berfokus pada hambatan tingkat kebijakan untuk pengakuan kualifikasi dan kepercayaan dalam sistem jaminan kualitas. Bagian 2 mengulas beberapa literatur tentang internasionalisasi penawaran dan permintaan. Bab 3 menjelaskan tanggapan internasional terhadap pengakuan dan jaminan kualitas. Bab 4 dan 5 masing-masing membahas perkembangan di Eropa dan Irlandia. Bab 6 mengkaji dampak keragaman dan otonomi (kelembagaan dan nasional). Kesimpulan utama adalah bahwa di tingkat politik, terutama di Uni Eropa, saat ini ada alat untuk mendukung internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi, tetapi kurangnya pengalaman dan pengetahuan praktis untuk menggunakan alat-alat ini secara konsisten. pada tahap awal implementasi di tingkat nasional dan kelembagaan.
1. Perkenalan
Globalisasi, yang didefinisikan sebagai peningkatan arus lintas batas teknologi, keuangan, perdagangan, pengetahuan, manusia, nilai, dan gagasan (Knight & de Wit, 1997), adalah kata yang mencoba menangkap tren menuju peningkatan tingkat interaksi dan saling ketergantungan. . organisasi dan antar negara. Internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi mencerminkan tren ini. Globalisasi mengubah tuntutan pada sistem pendidikan tinggi, dan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi diperlukan untuk memenuhi tuntutan ini.
Tuntutan yang berubah ini memiliki banyak bentuk: meningkatnya permintaan untuk kualifikasi Level 3, meningkatnya beban pengetahuan dan produktivitas penelitian di Level 3, meningkatnya minat mahasiswa/fakultas dalam kesempatan belajar/praktik di luar negeri, meningkatnya akuntabilitas.
Kami mendefinisikan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi sebagai tren menuju interaksi yang lebih besar dan saling ketergantungan antara sistem pendidikan tinggi. Internasionalisasi terjadi pada tingkat program (penawaran bersama dan gelar bersama, penawaran lintas batas, penelitian kolaboratif, waralaba, afiliasi, e-learning, dll.), pada tingkat individu (pertukaran staf dan siswa, aliran pengetahuan, dll.). .) ) dan mempengaruhi seluruh penawaran, karena program dapat dipengaruhi secara positif oleh daya tarik siswa pertukaran dan/atau pengajar berkunjung dan, di atas semua itu, akses yang lebih besar ke sumber daya pendidikan. Internasionalisasi dapat membantu (i) mengembangkan keterampilan individu dan menciptakan tim internasional, (ii) mempromosikan berbagi pengetahuan lintas batas, (iii) meningkatkan kapasitas inovasi, (iv) meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan, (v) meningkatkan efisiensi dan (vi) mempromosikan kohesi sosial..
Pada tahun 2003, Asosiasi Internasional Universitas menerbitkan sebuah studi berjudul Internasionalisasi Pendidikan Tinggi - Praktik dan Prioritas, yang memberikan perspektif kelembagaan. "Pesan utama" yang diidentifikasi dalam ulasan ini meliputi:
"Mobilitas mahasiswa dan fakultas adalah alasan terpenting untuk memprioritaskan internasionalisasi dan diidentifikasi sebagai bagian internasionalisasi yang tumbuh paling cepat."
"Pengosongan otak dan hilangnya identitas budaya adalah bahaya terbesar internasionalisasi."
“Pengembangan Mahasiswa, Staf dan Fakultas; standar akademik dan penjaminan mutu; dan kolaborasi internasional adalah tiga manfaat terpenting dari internasionalisasi penelitian.”
“Permasalahan yang perlu mendapat perhatian adalah kerjasama pengembangan, penjaminan mutu/akreditasi, pendanaan dan kerjasama penelitian.”
Internasionalisasi, tentu saja, membutuhkan mobilitas individu: menurut UNESCO
"... pertumbuhan pendidikan tinggi memiliki dimensi internasional karena ekspansi yang cepat dan internasionalisasi pengetahuan, serta koneksi dan solidaritas yang dibangun dalam komunitas ilmiah dan universitas, dan akses yang lebih besar ke sumber daya pendidikan di seluruh dunia. mobilitas siswa, peneliti, guru dan profesional, sangat penting untuk dimensi internasional ini” (UNESCO, 1993).
tetapi ada hambatan untuk mobilitas. Tinjauan ini berfokus pada hambatan tingkat kebijakan untuk pengakuan kualifikasi dan kepercayaan dalam sistem jaminan kualitas. Kegiatan penyelenggara pendidikan tinggi yang sebenarnya tidak akan dibahas secara rinci dalam makalah ini: penekanannya adalah pada kebijakan.
Pengakuan gelar menjadi sulit, sebagian karena bentuk dan budaya yang berbeda di mana sistem pendidikan tinggi telah berkembang tanpa interaksi selama bertahun-tahun. Untungnya, banyak negara dan kawasan menghadapi tantangan dan kita akan melihat kemajuan yang signifikan, terutama di kawasan Eropa.
Dalam Bagian 2, kami menjelaskan beberapa literatur tentang internasionalisasi penawaran dan permintaan. Di Bagian 3, kami menjelaskan tanggapan internasional terhadap pengakuan dan jaminan kualitas. Dalam Bab 4 dan 5 kita akan melihat perkembangan di Eropa dan Irlandia masing-masing. Dalam Bab 6, kami menganalisis dampak keragaman dan otonomi (kelembagaan dan nasional). Akhirnya, di Bagian 7 kami menarik beberapa kesimpulan umum.
2 Internasionalisasi penawaran dan permintaan
Menurut McGaw, penyebab internasionalisasi sisi penawaran adalah "hubungan internasional" (seperti program Fulbright dan Erasmus), dan "keuangan" sisi permintaan (nasional dan institusional) dan "kebutuhan individu" (primer). , "kebutuhan nasional" dan "utilitas yang lebih besar".
Hatakenaka (2004) mengidentifikasi lima tren utama yang terkait dengan internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi: peningkatan mobilitas siswa; mobilitas pekerja yang lebih besar; transportasi lintas negara; meningkatnya permintaan akan barang-barang profesional; dan kerjasama ilmiah internasional.
Beberapa berpendapat bahwa argumen kuat yang mendukung internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi adalah pengembangan keterampilan yang memungkinkan lulusan untuk mengatasi kompleksitas lingkungan global (Meiras, 2004).
Pada bagian ini kita akan membahas beberapa topik.
mobilitas
Pelajar keliling dapat mendaftar di program gelar di negara tuan rumah atau menghabiskan masa studi di sana untuk mendapatkan kredit akademik menuju gelar di institusi di negara asal mereka atau (semakin) menuju gelar bersama internasional. .
Pada tahun 2003, terdapat 2,05 juta siswa internasional di negara-negara OECD, meningkat 14% dari tahun 2002 dan meningkat 36% dari tahun 2001, ketika ada 1,5 juta atau 5% dari total jumlah siswa (OECD, 2003).
Pada tahun 2003, lima tujuan teratas bagi pelajar internasional adalah Amerika Serikat, Inggris Raya, Jerman, Prancis, dan Australia (OECD).
Menurut proyeksi IDP, kebutuhan akan pendidikan tinggi internasional akan melebihi 7 juta siswa pada tahun 2025 (IDP, 2002).
Studi Vision 2020 memprediksi bahwa "permintaan global untuk penempatan siswa luar negeri dari negara-negara berbahasa Inggris akan meningkat dari 1 juta hari ini (2004) menjadi 2,6 juta pada tahun 2020".
Rekrutmen peneliti eksternal (sarjana, pascasarjana dan profesor) di sektor-sektor seperti sains dan teknologi semakin internasional karena sifat kompetitif skema pendanaan dan kebutuhan yang sesuai untuk akses ke pemikir terbaik. Para pekerja pengetahuan ini diakui memiliki kepentingan ekonomi yang besar, misalnya pertimbangkan salah satu tujuan Lisbon (Dewan Eropa, Maret 2000): “Ambil tindakan untuk menghilangkan hambatan mobilitas peneliti di Eropa pada tahun 2002 dan menarik dan menarik. Menjaga peneliti terbaik Eropa.
Program pertukaran, promosi aktif sektor pendidikan tinggi suatu negara di luar negeri, bersama dengan relaksasi undang-undang visa dan imigrasi, adalah salah satu strategi yang digunakan untuk menarik orang-orang berbakat ke ekonomi pengetahuan negara tuan rumah (OECD, 2004).
Contoh program pertukaran adalah Program Fulbright, yang merupakan program pendidikan internasional dari pemerintah AS. Itu didirikan oleh hukum pada tahun 1946 dan ditujukan untuk akademisi dan mahasiswa pascasarjana. Contoh lainnya adalah program Erasmus (European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students), yang merupakan aksi dari program SOCRATES II di bidang pendidikan tinggi.
Mobilitas dapat menyediakan lebih banyak variasi jalur ke pendidikan tinggi dan dengan demikian membantu mengatasi tantangan akses dan kesetaraan.
penyebab variabel
Meskipun bukti menunjukkan bahwa kebutuhan individu saat ini merupakan pendorong utama permintaan internasionalisasi, pertimbangan ekonomi menjadi semakin penting. Memasukkan konten internasional ke dalam kurikulum dan aspek lain dari kegiatan kampus dipandang sebagai cara untuk meningkatkan daya saing mahasiswa, institusi, dan negara di pasar global (Qiang, 2003). Pergeseran logika tersebut didukung oleh pergeseran paradigma dari kerjasama ke kompetisi yang dibawa oleh pertumbuhan pasar pendidikan internasional (Campbell dan van der Wende, 2000).
Potensi institusi pendidikan tinggi untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dari kegiatan internasional sangat memotivasi (Meiras 2004). Merekrut mahasiswa internasional telah menjadi pendorong penting pendapatan institusional dan kepentingan ekonomi nasional (Qiang 2003). Laporan Fottrell (2006) tentang pendidikan kedokteran universitas Irlandia memberikan contoh bagaimana pendapatan mahasiswa internasional menopang kelangsungan hidup sekolah kedokteran Irlandia.
Logika pendapatan menjadi penting dalam pendekatan strategis beberapa negara OECD, terutama Australia, Selandia Baru dan Inggris. Australia dan Selandia Baru mengikuti strategi pemerintah yang komprehensif untuk mempromosikan pendidikan sebagai industri ekspor.
Secara umum, dukungan pemerintah untuk strategi yang menghasilkan pendapatan asing memberikan otonomi yang cukup besar bagi institusi untuk mencari dan mempertahankan reputasi di sektor pendidikan tinggi, misalnya melalui perjanjian penjaminan mutu internasional (OECD, 2004).
Liberalisasi pasar pendidikan
Internasionalisasi layanan pendidikan didukung oleh liberalisasi pasar pendidikan melalui inisiatif seperti perjanjian perdagangan regional. Faktor lain yang mendorong pertumbuhan penawaran adalah meningkatnya persaingan internasional dalam pendidikan tinggi dan meningkatnya insentif ekonomi untuk internasionalisasi (Van der Wende dan Westerheijden, 2001).
Di banyak negara, pemerintah telah menerapkan kebijakan deregulasi untuk mempromosikan otonomi kelembagaan dan kekuatan pasar yang lebih besar. Dampak deregulasi, terutama jika dibarengi dengan pemotongan dana publik, telah mendorong institusi pendidikan tinggi untuk melakukan ekspansi lintas batas (Campbell dan van der Wende, 2000).
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) yang mencakup pendidikan sangat penting. GATS, perjanjian Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia (WTO) yang mulai berlaku pada tahun 1995, bertujuan untuk meliberalisasi perdagangan jasa melalui putaran negosiasi yang berurutan. Mengenai pendidikan, GAT mengakui empat bentuk yang berbeda: 1) pembelajaran lintas batas, seperti pembelajaran jarak jauh, e-learning, universitas virtual; 2) Konsumsi di luar negeri, misalnya pelajar yang bepergian ke luar negeri untuk tujuan pendidikan; 3) Kehadiran komersial misalnya cabang atau back office, kemitraan, perjanjian waralaba dengan organisasi lokal dan 4) Kehadiran orang perseorangan, misalnya guru, dosen, peneliti yang bekerja di luar negeri (contoh dari Knight 2002).
Prinsip-prinsip utama yang mendasari GATS tercantum:
Semua layanan ditanggung oleh GATS
Negara yang paling disukai berlaku untuk semua layanan, kecuali untuk pengecualian sementara (lebih suka satu, lebih suka semua).
Perlakuan nasional berlaku di bidang-bidang di mana komitmen dibuat (komitmen masing-masing negara untuk membuka pasar di sektor tertentu dan tingkat keterbukaan pasar ini adalah hasil negosiasi).
Transparansi dalam aturan, poin pertanyaan
Aturan harus objektif dan masuk akal (dan tidak memihak).
Pembayaran internasional: biasanya tidak terbatas
Kewajiban masing-masing negara: kontrak dan terkait
Liberalisasi Progresif: Melalui Negosiasi Lebih Lanjut
Dampak GATS pada pendidikan tinggi bisa sangat signifikan dan kontroversial, meskipun perdebatan telah mereda baru-baru ini. Pengecualian terhadap ketentuan-ketentuannya timbul sehubungan dengan jasa-jasa yang diberikan dalam pelaksanaan kekuasaan negara. Tidak sepenuhnya jelas apakah pendidikan tinggi yang didanai publik termasuk dalam kategori ini dan pendidikan tinggi swasta tidak. GATS akan mempengaruhi regulasi (penjaminan mutu, akreditasi dan standar) dan subsidi. Dampak GATS pada pendidikan tinggi dapat meningkat secara signifikan sambil menunggu liberalisasi bertahap melalui negosiasi. Lihat (Knight 2002 dan 2003) untuk informasi lebih lanjut tentang GATS dan pendidikan tinggi.
Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK)
Tak perlu dikatakan bahwa teknologi informasi dan komunikasi memiliki dan akan memiliki dampak besar pada pendidikan tinggi pada umumnya dan, khususnya, pada internasionalisasi, memperluas akses ke sumber daya pendidikan. TIK telah sangat meningkatkan ketersediaan pengetahuan, mengaburkan batas-batas nasional dan, dalam beberapa aspek, peran pemerintah nasional (Qiang, 2003). Di beberapa bidang teknis dan profesional, e-learning telah menjadi metode penyampaian penting yang tersedia di seluruh dunia.
Revolusi TIK masih jauh dari selesai. Sejauh ini, pencapaian utama adalah peluncuran akses ke teknologi: penggunaan kreatif teknologi ini dalam pendidikan baru saja dimulai, dan masih ada banyak ruang untuk pertumbuhan.
Contoh menarik untuk memperluas akses ke sumber daya adalah proyek MIT Open Courseware. “OpenCourseWare mencerminkan tujuan langsung dan utama MIT untuk memajukan pendidikan di seluruh dunia. Melalui MIT OCW, fakultas dan mahasiswa dari seluruh dunia dapat mengambil manfaat dari karya penelitian fakultas kami dan bergabung dengan komunitas pendidikan global di mana pengetahuan dan ide dibagikan secara terbuka dan bebas untuk kepentingan semua orang.” (Susan Hockfield, presiden Institut Teknologi Massachusetts (ocw. mit.edu)).
Omong-omong, meningkatkan akses ke sumber daya pendidikan melalui TIK dapat memungkinkan guru untuk memikirkan kembali pendekatan tradisional untuk mengajar dan mungkin memungkinkan realokasi upaya, memungkinkan lebih banyak waktu untuk kerja kelompok kecil dan penilaian formatif.
situasi transnasional
Pendidikan transnasional mengacu pada "setiap program studi pendidikan tinggi atau serangkaian program studi atau layanan pendidikan (termasuk pembelajaran jarak jauh) di mana siswa berada di negara selain negara di mana lembaga pemberi berada" (UNESCO/Dewan Eropa) . , 1999).
Tentu saja ada pasar di antara orang-orang untuk pendidikan yang dapat diakses, terjangkau, dan berkualitas. Selanjutnya, dalam kasus di mana pasokan domestik tidak dapat memenuhi permintaan, pemerintah dapat beralih ke lembaga asing untuk mengisi kesenjangan (Garrett dan Verbik, 2003).
Penawaran transnasional juga menyediakan akses untuk melanjutkan program pengembangan profesional. Beberapa universitas AS, misalnya, menawarkan kursus online yang dirancang untuk mempromosikan pengembangan profesional para insinyur dan profesional lainnya.
Ada semakin banyak bukti bahwa penawaran transnasional terkonsentrasi pada mata pelajaran kejuruan, khususnya bisnis, dan pada tingkat yang lebih rendah teknologi informasi. Misalnya, di Hong Kong, dari 385 program asing, 65% berfokus pada bisnis, 11% lainnya pada TI. Data ini mungkin mencerminkan kecenderungan yang lebih besar bagi universitas asing untuk fokus pada mata pelajaran kejuruan sebagai "kelompok aman" kecuali jika dikelola oleh universitas lokal. Kecenderungan mata pelajaran vokasional dalam ketentuan transnasional kontras dengan pilihan disiplin akademik oleh siswa internasional yang pergi ke luar negeri, yang lebih seimbang antar disiplin ilmu (OECD, 2003). Amerika Serikat, Inggris Raya dan Australia adalah peserta paling aktif dalam pengiriman transnasional.
3 Pengakuan, jaminan kualitas
Hambatan mobilitas dan kurangnya sistem mutu yang transparan menghalangi internasionalisasi pendidikan tinggi dan pelatihan kejuruan. Istilah penjaminan mutu harus dipahami sebagai mencakup semua bentuk penjaminan mutu eksternal (akuntabilitas publik) oleh badan pemerintah terkait, termasuk akreditasi program.
Konfirmasi pelatihan
Kegagalan untuk menyediakan proses yang proporsional, adil dan konsisten untuk pengakuan kualifikasi dan penilaian pencapaian pendidikan (istilah 'pengakuan' mencakup keduanya) dapat menghalangi upaya untuk mendaftar sebagai siswa atau bekerja di negara lain.
Ada kelas pengakuan yang berbeda: (i) pengakuan kualifikasi formal seperti gelar atau diploma, (ii) pengakuan kualifikasi tingkat kedua untuk masuk, (iii) penilaian hasil pembelajaran selama masa studi di luar negeri untuk kredit akademik, ( iv) penilaian informal.
ервые актики ания авиации ерез ебные ограммы .д. d. акі адыход ожа е аспазнаваць алентныя аграмы, але ожа е аваць алентныя авучання. ольш авядлівым адыходам 'яўляецца анцэнтрацыя а а ах авучання (веды, авыкі або ампетэнцыі). овым адыходам ожа аяўнасць агульнай аліфікацый адастаўлення атэгорый аналізу асягнутых аў. амя аго, ацэсы ання огуць енш орсткімі апамогай азрыстых аеспячэння асці, аколькі аскрываюць асягнутыя андарты аваюць а
адыгрывае альную олю арэнні ававой азы ання аліфікацый а еце. альныя анвенцыі, а а ання адукацыі (i) опы, (ii) , (iii) арабскіх аў, (iv) акіянскага , (v) ацінскай аса арыбск ).
«У 1992 одзе о ана еснае ае а аднаго адавага амітэтаў агчымасці ерсальнай анвенцыі аб а аў а ак асягнуць ансенсусу е алося, а облена ова, о еянні авінны ацягвацца а альным оўні» (ЮНЕСКА, 2004). асля ага UNECSO апублікавала 1993 . аендацыі а анні адукацыйных аў аліфікацый аліне ай адукацыі», адрасаваныя авам-членам азглядзе ер, еааа амендацыі атрабуюць асці ачэнні ацэдур:
«Пры ўстанаўленні працэдур ацэнкі кваліфікацый для ўсіх мэтаў, згаданых у пунктах 8-10 вышэй, кампетэнтныя органы і адпаведныя ўстановы павінны ўлічваць вялікую разнастайнасць навучальных устаноў, відаў навучання, зместу праграм і метадаў навучання, уключаючы дыстанцыйнае навучанне і іншыя традыцыйныя формы вышэйшай адукацыі. ацэнцы астаўнасці амежнай аліфікацыі ада авінна аксама аць авы, еў е адальнік аіне, е а а аа» (ЮНЕСКА, 1993).
абонская анвенцыя а анні 1997 . (Канвенцыя авета опы/ЮНЕСКА) аспаўсюджваецца а еўрапейскі , аднаўляе анвенцыю 1979 . а ершая анвенцыя, ая а абноўлена асля амендацый 1993 одзе. е адпісалі ольшасьць аінаў-чальцоў ады опы, а аксама , анада, алія . абонская анвенцыя аб анні асяроджваецца а ах авучання (ведах авыках) атрабуе ання, алі "істотная" озніца е а
апрызнана, о агадненні аб анні авінны ерагледжаны абноўлены ам овых атрабаванняў, акіх анне есных еародных. азгледзім аступныя амендаваныя еянні, аныя абалізацыяй ай адукацыяй: анферэнцыі «Дыялог евер-Юг» 2003 .
«Умацаванне, ерагляд абнаўленне альных анвенцый аб анні аліфікацый адавальнення овых атрэб адстаўленне ародных андартаў аксама е азгледжана агчымасць арэння ерагледжанай ароднай ання аліфікацый.
антэксце арта адзначыць, о абонская анвенцыя аб анні агла адаптавацца а ен, «дадатковыя ».
ое апейская амісія арыла етку ацыянальных аў акадэмічнага ання (NARIC) аляпшэння акадэмічнага ання аліфікацый ерыядаў авучання аве опы арылі етку ENIC (Еўрапейская етка ацыянальных армацыйных аў акадэмічнага ання абільнасці) еткі ENIC NARIC есна ацоўнічаюць.
Краіны Ціхаакіянскага рэгіёну, а таксама Аўстралія, Новая Зеландыя і іншыя азіяцкія краіны спадзяюцца аб'яднацца, каб сфармаваць сетку распазнавання, аналагічную ENIC/NARIC, для пашырэння абмену інфармацыяй і пашыранага вопыту распазнавання. ага о е а еракладаў: а азываецца UMAP.
афесійнае анне апісвае ава аймацца афесійнай ейнасцю. афесійнае анне - ольш аданае анне, аколькі о акранае е олькі ацыянальную адукацыі, але арганізацыю афесіі ае . а анне афесійных аліфікацый аста аюць ольш окія аблемы, андлёвая алітыка альянсы, ацыйная алітыка, ая аляцыя адноа а апошнія ады анні аемнасці афесійнай алентнасці ашаюцца аз агадненні аб аемным анні. агадненні огуць адрознівацца а аб'ёме , авіла, аключаюцца аміж афесійнымі асацыяцыямі, аінамі або альнымі амі (Campbell dan van der Wende, 2000). ашынгтонская амова - обры ад:
«Прызнавая отную алентнасць акрэдытацыі арганізацый, аюць атус адпісантаў, аграм адрыхтоўкі ераў, акрэдытаваных .
анавіць, о аграм, акрэдытаваных арганізацыямі а акрэдытацыі ожнай аіны-члена, атовыя аймацца ернай ацай а ачатковым оўні.
апейскім аюзе е екалькі а аесійных аліфікацый, ажную олю аляпшэнні афесійнага ання абільнасці (раздзел 4).
абеспячэння асці
абеспячэнне ачацца аказ альнага есца ерухомасці а азве ага адукацыі аграме аворый, еабходных для ароаднага а альная а алонскага ацэсу. В Соединенных Штатах в проекте отчета министра образования о будущем высшего образования (2006 г.) (версия от 9 августа 2006 г.) делается вывод о том, что подотчетность является ключом к повышению эффективности сектора высшего образования и успеваемости студентов, что тесно связано с институциональным ехом. олжны еряться а основе «добавленной оимости».
авной очкой обеспечения ачества ется оставщик его образования. оставщики олжны еть енние емы обеспечения ачества одвергаться ешней оверке ачества езависимыми агентствами, оторые акже Это рекомендуемый подход в Стандартах и руководствах по обеспечению качества в Европейском пространстве высшего образования, который будет обсуждаться в Разделе 4, а также в Руководстве по передовой практике INQAAHE. олезный обзор «Мировых облем обеспечения ачества» едставлен (Kristoffersen dan Woodhouse 2005).
В оставшейся части этого раздела основное внимание будет уделено обеспечению качества трансграничных программ, что создает определенные проблемы для поставщиков, агентств по обеспечению качества и сетей агентств по обеспечению качества.
di sini
ое оверки ачества ернационализации (IQRP) апущен 1994 оду ограммой о ональному енеджменту ем образовании (IM) После экспериментов с проектом в нескольких учреждениях по всему миру он получил дальнейшее развитие и институционализацию в сотрудничестве с Европейской ассоциацией университетов, и теперь он предоставляется тремя организациями под названием IQR (Обзор качества интернационализации). Основной целью IQR является повышение качества посредством оценки достижения целей и задач интернационализации, заявленных учреждением (van der Wende and Westerheijden, 2001).
Глобальный альянс за транснациональное образование (GATE) разработал набор принципов для оказания помощи учреждениям и организациям в разработке и оценке качества трансграничного образования. GATE предлагает сертификацию транснациональных программ посредством процесса самооценки и экспертной оценки.
Кроме того, в области транснационального образования ЮНЕСКО и Совет Европы координировали разработку Кодекса практики предоставления транснационального образования (ЮНЕСКО/Совет Европы, 2001 г.). Основанные на Лиссабонской конвенции о признании (Совет Европы, 1997 г.) принципы, изложенные в Кодексе, предназначены для удовлетворения ожиданий как стран отправления, так и стран назначения.
Управление по обеспечению качества Великобритании (QAA) разработало кодекс поведения для академического обеспечения качества и стандартов в высшем образовании, а раздел 2 кодекса касается совместной доставки и гибкого и распределенного обучения (включая электронное обучение). Соблюдение Кодекса является обязательным и основано на предположении, что академические стандарты призов, присуждаемых по соглашению о сотрудничестве, должны быть эквивалентны стандартам сопоставимых призов, доставляемых отправляющей страной.
Всемирный форум ЮНЕСКО по международному обеспечению качества, аккредитации и признанию квалификаций был учрежден в 2002 г. Первый форум был посвящен теме «Глобализация и высшее образование» и плану действий ЮНЕСКО. Включает:
'Aggiornare le convenzioni regionali in modo che rispondano meglio alle nuove sfide di un ambiente in evoluzione dell'istruzione superiore,
Sviluppo delle capacità per la garanzia della qualità a livello nazionale e regionale per garantire lo sviluppo sostenibile dei sistemi di istruzione superiore e
Sviluppare strumenti informativi per gli studenti sull'offerta di istruzione superiore di qualità per consentire loro di prendere decisioni informate
Lo sviluppo di linee guida internazionali e codici di buona pratica è stato proposto per supportare un quadro internazionale per lo sviluppo delle politiche nazionali'
Uno sforzo congiunto molto significativo da parte dell'OCSE e dell'UNESCO, nello sviluppo della pubblicazione Linee guida per l'offerta di qualità nell'istruzione transfrontaliera (OCSE, 2005). Queste linee guida forniscono un quadro internazionale per proteggere gli studenti e le altre parti interessate da un'offerta di bassa qualità e da fornitori poco affidabili. Questa iniziativa è stata stimolata dalla diversità dei quadri nazionali per l'accreditamento della garanzia della qualità e il riconoscimento delle qualifiche. Mentre alcuni paesi dispongono di sistemi globali, altri paesi non hanno ancora la capacità di affrontare le sfide dell'offerta transfrontaliera. Anche la mancanza di quadri globali per il coordinamento di varie iniziative a livello internazionale, in alcuni casi in cui l'offerta transfrontaliera non è coperta da alcun quadro di garanzia della qualità e di accreditamento. Le Linee guida stabiliscono come i governi, gli istituti di istruzione superiore, i corpi studenteschi, gli organismi di garanzia della qualità e di accreditamento, gli organismi di riconoscimento accademico e professionale dei paesi di invio e di accoglienza potrebbero condividere le responsabilità, nel rispetto della diversità dei sistemi di istruzione superiore. Gli obiettivi politici principali sono quattro:
''Tutela degli studenti/discenti' dai rischi di disinformazione, offerta di scarsa qualità e qualifiche di validità limitata.
Le qualifiche dovrebbero essere leggibili e trasparenti al fine di aumentarne la validità internazionale e la portabilità. Fonti di informazioni affidabili e di facile utilizzo dovrebbero facilitare questo.
Le procedure di riconoscimento dovrebbero essere trasparenti, coerenti, eque e affidabili e imporre il minor onere possibile ai professionisti mobili.
Le agenzie nazionali di assicurazione della qualità e di accreditamento devono intensificare la loro cooperazione internazionale al fine di aumentare la comprensione reciproca.'
Lo sviluppo delle linee guida e dei codici di condotta discussi in precedenza è stato un positivo passo avanti nel fornire un approccio coerente per affrontare le questioni di garanzia della qualità associate all'offerta di istruzione transfrontaliera.
Tuttavia, queste iniziative sono progettate per fornire un quadro o una serie di principi che dovrebbero essere alla base dei sistemi di garanzia della qualità delle istituzioni erogatrici. La prova finale del successo è la prova di sistemi efficaci di assicurazione della qualità basati su linee guida e codici di condotta. Il parametro più significativo di successo è la capacità dei sistemi di assicurazione della qualità di misurare e riferire sull'accuratezza dei risultati di apprendimento dichiarati e sul livello di conseguimento. Sono necessarie ulteriori ricerche in questo settore.
An interesting approach to the external QA of international collaboration is that of the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA) . Even before the launch of the UNESCO/OECD Guidelines, the AUQA had adopted a risk assessment approach to determine the nature of a university's overseas operations, with the option of an audit panel visit to an overseas site where appropriate. The agency is currently developing bilateral relations with quality agencies in countries where Australia has a significant higher education presence. Memoranda of Co-operation have also been signed with other agencies (Woodhouse, 2006).
On the receiving side, initiatives have been developed to assure consumer protection in the wake of concerns about the quality and standards of transnational education. Several countries have enacted legislation which requires foreign providers to be registered, licensed or in some other way approved by the local quality assurance authorities or by the Ministry of Education (eg Hong Kong, Israel, Malaysia, Romania, South Africa).
Distance education is a mode of provision that arises in the international context as well as in the national context. Distance education is an area in which traditional providers are increasingly active and which has seen the emergence of new providers that are quite different in form to the traditional providers. The quality assurance of distance programmes presents different problems to that of traditional programmes. We won't dwell on them here because they are not exclusively international issues. The issues are covered well in, for example, the 'Best Practices For Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate Programs' published jointly by the eight (including the six higher education) regional accrediting commissions in the USA or in the aforementioned QAA guidelines.
4 The European Context
Internationalisation activity at the regional in Europe has been particularly intense for the past decade. The main drivers are the European Commission and the Bologna Process. The Bologna Process is a process of intergovernmental cooperation involving 45 Countries (2006) which aims to create a European Higher Education Area (EHEA) by 2010. The European Union with 25 Member States (2006) contributes to the development of quality education by encouraging cooperation between Member States. UNESCO and the Council of Europe (46 countries) as we have seen are also significant actors particularly in the area of recognition.
The Bologna Process
The EHEA is to be achieved by creating a common structure (consistent and compatible systems and processes) for higher education and training which is sufficiently flexible to allow national requirements to be met. There is a corresponding process for further education called the Copenhagen process.
The Bologna Process divides higher education into three main cycles. The corresponding major qualifications in the Irish system are Bachelor, Master and Doctor. A misconception that sometimes arises is that the Bologna Process prescribes a 3+2 year model for the first two cycles. Two significant recent developments in the Bologna Process are the adoption in 2005 of 'Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area' (Bologna Standards and Guidelines) and 'The framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area (Bologna Framework)'.
The Bologna Standards and Guidelines are contained in a report to Bologna Ministers entitled 'Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area' developed and drafted by ENQA through its members and in cooperation with EURASHE, ESIB and EUA.
(ENQA is the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education; EURASHE is group of national and professional associations of colleges and polytechnics and individual Institutions; ESIB is the students group and EUA is the European University Association. These four bodies meet regularly as the E4-Group. ENQA coordinates E4-Group meetings which include representation from the European directorate-general of Education and Training.)
The main recommendations in the ENQA report on Standards and Guidelines include:
There will be European standards for internal and external quality assurance, and for external quality assurance agencies.
European quality assurance agencies will be expected to submit themselves to a cyclical review within five years.
There will be an emphasis on subsidiarity, with reviews being undertaken nationally where possible.
The report also proposed that a European register of quality assurance agencies be produced. Ministers at Bergen adopted the stan-dards and guidelines and welcomed the principle of a European register of QA Agencies and asked ENQA in co-operation with the other members of the E4 Group to report back through the Follow-up Group on the practicalities of establishing a European Register.
The first agency in Europe to demonstrate formal compliance with the aforementioned Standards and Guidelines did so in July 2006. It is reasonable to anticipate that all EHEA external QA agencies and higher education providers will adapt their QA processes to these Bologna Standards and Guidelines.
The Bologna Framework is based on the Dublin Descriptors developed by the Joint Quality Initiative drawing on experi-ence of established frameworks elsewhere particularly in the UK. There is already considerable support for the Bologna Framework owing to the pre-existence and widespread application of the Dublin Descriptors.
The Bologna Process has the full support of the European Commission (which nevertheless has more wide ranging objectives)—its contribution to the Bologna Bergen Meeting included the following point under the heading 'Next Steps: Universities and the Lisbon Strategy':
'Bologna reforms are necessary and they will have the full support of the Commission in the years to come, but in striving for ever-increased quality, institutions and governments must look beyond these structures, and address the underlying questions of attractiveness, governance and funding. They should consider what needs to be done in order to achieve world-class quality, to improve governance of institutions and systems, and to increase and diversify higher education funding.' (EC 2005)
A comprehensive mid-term review of the Bologna process was published by EURYDICE in 2005. It found that the three-cycle structure was being introduced in most signatory countries, the implementation of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and Diploma Supplement had begun in a majority and the development of quality assurance measures was also well under way and concluded that it 'remains vital to extend these measures to all higher education institutions and programmes on a regular systematic basis and to reinforce them with additional measures such as effective quality assurance systems recognised outside national borders.'
The EUA Trends survey of higher education institutions (HEIs) is published biennially. Trends IV survey involved site visits to 62 HEIs and focused on structures, recognition and quality. Overall Trends IV found that the surveyed HEIs have adopted the Bologna Process reforms and in the majority of case have taken ownership of the process. Curiously, accord-ing to Trends IV the majority of Higher Education Institutions report that 'national legislation undermines decision making autonomy'. What the trends report demonstrates very clearly is that despite the high-level consensus that exists in the Bologna Process and while there has been very significant progress made that there yet remains is considerable variation in the implementation, and even the understanding of the Bologna related instruments and that much work remains to be done. Some of the findings which have an overtly international dimension are highlighted (paraphrased/quoted) in the following paragraphs:-
'Considerable progress has been made in introducing three cycle structures across Europe, although there are still some legislative obstacles to structural reform in a few countries five years after signing the Bologna Declaration. Many institutions, however, have now reached the heart of the transition process. Structural change must be matched with proper redevelopment of the curricula, and often this has not been completed. Confusion sometimes exists regarding the objectives of the first cycle degree (which many mistakenly regard as a compressed ver-sion of former long-cycle programmes) and in many cases there has not been adequate time for institutions and academics to address reforms in a comprehensive way and to benefit from the opportunities offered through restructuring the curricula.'
'Recognition of qualifications: Improved quality is regarded as one of the keys to more automatic recognition of qualifications across Europe. The site visits show that considerable progress in recognition is being made, but again there is a need to do more to ensure a systematic use of the commonly agreed Bologna transparency tools, in particular ECTS and the Diploma Supplement. The Diploma Supplement is cer-tainly being introduced in all the countries visited, in line with the commitment of the Berlin Communiqué, but in addition to technical problems, the challenge of providing clear information about learning outcomes remains. Meanwhile ECTS is being widely used for “student transfer”, and generally seems to work well. However, it is still often perceived as a tool to translate national systems into a European language, rather than as a central feature of curriculum design. Thus strengthening efforts to mainstream these European tools in institu-tions across Europe continues to be a priority.' Some HEIs 'have difficulties with the validation of courses taken abroad'. Many identified the need to improve the implementation of ECTS to preclude inconsistencies.
'One of the biggest practical problems with Joint Degree programmes is the question of quality assurance/accreditation. Transnational higher education programmes need special forms of quality assurance and it is to be hoped that the progress made at European level for quality in agreeing on shared guidelines and standards will also facilitate appropriate accreditation mechanisms for Joint Degree pro-grammes.' Trends IV provides some evidence that the 'situation regarding the legal possibility to award joint degrees' is improving but also states: 'amendments to the higher education laws are still needed in some countries where Joint Degrees are either excluded or at least not explicitly mentioned and encouraged in the national legislation.'
Variation in academic calendars across Europe is a 'major obstacle' to mobility. Agreement on the date for the end of the first semester and start of second semester would resolve this issue.
'The recognition of non-formal/non-academic qualifications (APL/APEL) needs to be put on the agenda of more HEIs as it will be an increasingly important topic in future national and European discussions on higher education and vocational training.'
The current focus of the Bologna Process is on
implementation of the standards and guidelines for quality assurance;
implementation of the national frameworks for qualifications;
the awarding and recognition of joint degrees, including at the doctorate level;
creating opportunities for flexible learning paths in higher education, including
procedures for the recognition of prior learning.
There follow some observations on the Bologna process:
1. Significant progress has been made, there is widespread support for the process and we now have some of the main tools for exchanging information about the quality and standards of higher education programmes. What is still lacking at this early stage is practical expertise and know-how in using those tools consistently so that the decisions made are repeatable. This will come in time provided various communities of practice candidly share experiences and stakeholders remain open to change.
2. This lack of practical experience also applies at the programme level where the switch to learning outcomes and a student centred approach will take some years to embed. The new learner centred approach will not happen by fiat but by individuals and institutions changing their approach to teaching and more important to assessment. This new approach also requires that external quality agencies adapt their methods to encourage focus on outcomes and the 'value added' to learners.
3. HEIs and External Quality Assurance Agencies will generally be able to comply with the Standards and Guide-lines for quality for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area. How much transparency this will actually create and whether it will be sufficient to engender the trust required to encourage acceptance of quality and accreditation decisions at face value remains to be seen. One suspects that supplementary instruments such as mutual accreditation/QA agreements might be required.
4. It is by no means clear that the classification by the non-specialist of qualifications using the Bologna Frame-work will lead to repeatable decisions. The problem is that the learning outcome statements are open to a broad interpretation unless one is aware of the context in which they were developed. The best way to address this is to contextualise the framework by publishing examples of Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 programme outcomes in the main disciplines. The work of the Tuning Educational Structures in Europe group which is expressing outcomes for individual disciplines will be very valuable in this respect.
Recognition, The Council of Europe and the Lisbon Recognition Convention
The Council of Europe groups together 46 countries of greater Europe. The contribution of the Council of Europe to the Bologna process is significant particularly in the area of recognition of qualifications. In this section we focus upon the Lis-bon Recognition Convention. Other contributions of the Council of Europe are outlined in the Council Recommendation 1620 (2003) 'Council of Europe contribution to the higher education area'.
The Lisbon Recognition Convention can be regarded as a pillar of the Bologna Process. The full title of the convention is 'Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region'. The term 'qualifications concerning higher education' includes higher education qualifications and qualifications giving access to higher education. The convention con-cerns assessment of qualifications for recognition or other purposes.
The principal provisions are (quoting from the Council of Europe Website) :
'Holders of qualifications issued in one country shall have adequate access to an assessment of these qualifications in another country.
No discrimination shall be made in this respect on any ground such as the applicant's gender, race, colour, disability, language, religion, po-litical opinion, national, ethnic or social origin.
The responsibility to demonstrate that an application does not fulfil the relevant requirements lies with the body undertaking the assessment.
Each country shall recognise qualifications – whether for access to higher education, for periods of study or for higher education degrees – as similar to the corresponding qualifications in its own system unless it can show that there are substantial differences between its own qualifi-cations and the qualifications for which recognition is sought.
Recognition of a higher education qualification issued in another country shall have one or more of the following consequences:
- access to further higher education studies, including relevant examinations and preparations for the doctorate, on the same condi-tions as candidates from the country in which recognition is sought;
- The use of an academic title, subject to the laws and regulations of the country in which recognition is sought
- In addition, recognition may facilitate access to the labour market.'
Article X.2.5 of the Convention allows the Council of Europe/UNESCO Recognition Convention Committee to adopt subsidiary texts to the Convention and so far four texts have been adopted:
Recommendation on the Recognition of Joint Degrees and its Explanatory Memorandum (2004)
Code of Good Practice in the Provision of Trans-national Education (2001)
Recommendation on Criteria and Procedures for the Assessment on Foreign Qualifications (2001)
Recommendation on International Access Qualifications (1999).
The Recommendation on the Recognition of Joint Degrees is a response to the growing importance of these qualifications which in the strict legal sense are not considered covered by the Council of Europe/UNESCO Recognition Convention. It provides an inclusive definition of 'joint degrees' describing the kind of programmes and qualifications that are covered and very detailed and practical guidelines for the recognition of joint degrees. It recommends issue of the Diploma Sup-plement and ECTS.
The Code of Good Practice in the Provision of Trans-national Education according to its explanatory memorandum is designed: 'to (i) to meet the expectations of both the sending and the receiving countries with regard to transnational arrangements in higher education; (ii) to provide a source of reference on issues relating to the quality assurance and evaluation of programmes provided and qualifications issued through transnational arrangements; (iii) to offer “consumer protection” for students, employers and others who may be concerned with qualifications awarded through transnational arrangements; and (iv) to facilitate the recognition of qualifications awarded through transnational arrangements in higher education.'
Clause 2 of the Recommendation on Criteria and Procedures for the Assessment on Foreign Qualifications describes its purpose: 'It codifies established best practice among credential evaluators and builds on this practice in suggesting further improvements. The provisions of the Recommen-dation are in particular directed at recognition cases where a complex assessment is required. It is realised that cases involving
Comments
Post a Comment